The European Industrial Revolution
During
the European Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries, a number of
developments occurred about the same time, which allowed the cities to grow
larger. These included:
- The Agricultural Revolution
- Inventions of industrial
processes that led to factory development
- New forms of power, for
example coal, concentrating the industry in mining
- Improving transport systems,
including canals, railways and motorways
- Gradual improvements in
medicine, hygiene and public health
The loss
of farming jobs during the agricultural revolution (as people were replaced by
machinery) led to large numbers of rural poor, and migration to towns from
rural areas outstripped the demand for labour. It also produced a swollen
workforce and depressed wage rates, negative effects of mass
urbanisation.
The
changes in the UK were fueled by its capitalist economy. Widespread credit,
business corporations, investments and large-scale stock markets all became
common, and meanwhile, manufactiring, businesses and the number of labourers
increased radically. This was accompanied by a social transformation, where
population boomed and the demographics shifted, creating pressure for political
changes to take place.¹
Cities
Until the
middle of the 20th century, the biggest cities in the world were located in the
most developed countries. London and New York were the largest, and are now World
Cities, considered to be very important for the health of the global
economy.
The
present era demonstrates an economic shift, similar in impact to the shift from
an agrarian to industrial economy in the 18th and 19th centuries (see London Docklands and Park
Hill case studies). Globalisation has led to a shift of
manufacturing from its traditional centres in the developed world (in cities
such as Manchester, England) to lower-wage economies in China and India. As
production disperses, services concentrate into a few trading centres that are
major financial centres for accountancy, advertising, public relations, legal
services, and commercial law. This attracts business tourism, with effects on
transport, communication, personal services and entertainment.
An
example of a world financial centre is London, the largest city in Europe.
Before 1914, thirty foreign banks had established themselves in London. Between
1914 and the end of 1985, the number of foreign banks in London grew more than
14-fold, to 434. London now has more foreign than domestic banks (see Canary Wharf, the location of HSBC's
headquarters). Much of the population growth in London over the past 10 years
is due to international migration. The population has increased by nearly 2
million in the past 25 years, and 44% of the city’s population are of black or
other ethnic origin. The population has now exceeded 8.6 million, and covers an
area of 1572km², with a population density of 5197 per km².
Immigration
An
article written by Leo McKinstry for The Sunday Express states that
"unrestricted immigration is highly damaging to the economy. It drives
down wages, lowers living standards, places an intolerable strain on the civic
infrastructure and puts millions of indigenous workers on the scrapheap".² However,
there are positives to immigration, including the filling of job vacancies and
skill gaps and cultural diversity enrichment. According to a study by an Oxford
Economics researcher, migrant workers has helped maintain an adequate labour
supply, and fuelled the 2004–2008 economic boom in the UK.³ The statistics given
by Leo McKinstry oppose this, and state that only 29% of Somalis and 465 of
Bangladeshis are economically active in the UK, and in total 370,000 foreign
nationals were on out-of-work benefits in 2012, costing the government more
than £2 billion. Around 10% of the entire social housing stock is assigned to
foreigners, with the proportion in London rising by 20%. Immigration is often
regulated by global groupings, such as the European Union.
Since 1999, the EU has been developing a common immigration policy for Europe. EU
countries have agreed that the EU should have common, or EU-wide, immigration
and visa rules that will be valid all across the EU, and these are set out in
the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (2009). They include rules
regarding:
- Entry and residence
conditions for migrants;
- Procedures for issuing
long-term visas and residence permits;
- The rights of migrants
living legally in an EU country;
- Tackling irregular
immigration and unauthorised residence;
- The fight against human
trafficking;
- Agreements on the
readmission of citizens returning to their own countries;
- Incentives and support for
EU countries to promote the integration of migrants.⁴
¹ Bibliography: LLC, S. (2016) Europe (1815-1848). Available at:
http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/1848/section1.rhtml (Accessed: 19
April 2016). In-line Citation: (LLC, 2016)
² Bibliography: McKinstry, L. (2013) Mid-life
crisis for Osborne? Available at: http://www.express.co.uk/comment/columnists/leo-mckinstry/395471/Immigration-The-British-public-is-close-to-despair
(Accessed: 19 April 2016). In-line Citation: (McKinstry, 2013)
³ Bibliography: CreativeTags
(2006) The pros and cons of migration. Available at: https://www.embraceni.org/migration/the-pros-and-cons-of-migration/
(Accessed: 19 April 2016). In-line Citation: (CreativeTags,
2006)
⁴ Bibliography: COMM
(2016) EU immigration portal - rules - European commission. Available
at: http://ec.europa.eu/immigration/who-does-what/more-information/explaining-the-rules-why-are-there-eu-rules-and-national-rules_en (Accessed: 19
April 2016). In-line Citation: (COMM, 2016)
